Introduction: Meetei society started with the concept of creation theory that said the Meetei forefathers were born itself, they never migrated from some other parts of the world. Since time immemorial till this time they have been in possession of their Seven Yeks (amalgamated from nine salais) that was said originated from Kangleipak-Imphal.1 These Yeks were Seven Tribes who played prominent social and political roles in the formation of Meetei Khunai (Meetei Civilization). It grew in and around villages. They were a fine race of people, the cleanest of the clean people of that time, both in person and life style.2 Their costume and dress were very simple and peculiar in uniqueness. However the common mass wore the same class of loin clothe irrespective of social position or economic status. In early times, the standard of a bride was adjudged by the quality of clothe she wore, and that of a groom was decided by the skill of martial arts, called Mukna-Kangzei.3 The unmarried girls bore a side-lock hair style, called Shai Kakpa as a symbol of preservation of virginity.
Some Social Norms: In the beginning of the eighteenth century the killing of a Brahmin was a gravest offence, it was capital punishment. Even the King had to abdicate the throne to absolve himself from the sin of killing a Brahmin.4 However, the society did not allow the supremacy of the Brahmin.5 Customarily all the subjects had to pay respects to their King by bowing down before him. Muslims were exempted from it and allowed to do only "Salam".6 The worship of Sanamahi deity by a prince was regarded as a sure preliminary to an attempt by the worshipper on the throne, and was reserved for the King alone.7 Even after the acceptance of Vaishnanism; Panthoibi, Sanamahi, Umanglai along with some other deities occupied due proposition. Another deity called Pakhangba also was considered to be the sacred soul of ruling chief of Manipur. In the National Flag of Manipur there was a picture symbolizing Pakhangba. These deities were side by side worshipped by the Meetei Hindus.8
The society or the state was neither a contract nor an organism.9 The King was believed to have been appointed by God as King and sent by God for reinging the country. The King was God to his people. Sometimes the King was elected on the basis of democracy. There were organizations, rules and obligations, law for pleasing the King and for bringing up the Meetei culture. To preserve the long standing custom and tradition is the rule of law of Meetei Society.
Social Formation: The society developed from a stage of tribal status. The legal system between the period of the primitive and the age of the enforcement of the Indian Constitutional law was solely based on rites, moral precepts, usages, customs, memory and King’s command.
The society was dynamic because it was sufficient for livelihood. Agriculture depended solely on monsoon rain and without rural organisation there was no sufficiency that was the limbs of Meetei Civilization. Rice produce was amazing. There was no famine if there were no war. Articles were sold at cheap prices. In the markets there were two systems of exchange, one by articles and another by coins. The power of nobles and the feudal system were a living practice till recently. The laborer and their wages were at the wills of the King and the nobles. The cottage industry was remarkably developed in primitive style. In the result the primitive handloom and handicraft products carried an extraordinary charm. In the forests, precious timbers were available in plenty. The lakes supplied all the demands of fish consumption to the country.
Foreign Relations: There was foreign relationship from early times. Some local products were a good choice of the Brishers and of the Myanmarese (Burmese) as well. Communication and external affairs were the business of the King. Most areas of the country were remote hills and rural boundaries without a habitation. The King and the deities were being kept or stayed in the buildings, whereas the common people lived only in the thatching and kuccha houses. Gold, silver and precious stones were meant for the King and his descendants for foreign exchange. Sanitary was at its zenith except in the hilly and Loi regions.
Administration: Various laws were dictated from time to time. The King and his royal family on the one hand, and the poor commoner and the few middleclass families on the other, formed the early administration. The Piba (kinship), Pana (local administration), Lalup (compulsory free military service), Meenai (servant), Naithang (slavery) and the state services, among many others were the sources of law. Without the consent or command of the King, operation of the Executive, Legislative and Juidiciary remained with limitations. If the customary laws were violated, the law breaker was made outcaste, killed or exiled. There was no such right of the present time. Slavery and human sacrifice were in vogue. Many organizations were extant for gracing the King. The obligations of Laiharaoba (appeasing the god) rites were considered as higher than the prevailing laws of the country. The waging of war against the ruling King was common.
Status of Women: Married women controlled the local markets where only edible local products were sold. Markets weare meant for womenfolk. However there were morning market, day market, evening market and night market, which were run by married women only. In paddy fields and in all walks of life, except war, women played greater roles than the men-folk.
The hill women were not in the same footing socially and politically. There were various departments to look after the Pangals (Muslims), Lois (outcastes) and Cheengmees (hill-men). There was a peculiar type of secularism, and it helped while maintaining the peace to a great extent. Prohibition of liquor, suppression of immoral traffic acts, prevention of gambling and eradiction of theft were the negative functions of the state, because it remained in hands of the society mainly women. However, royal verdicts were enforced to check and punish the offenders.
Art and Culture: The Meetei art and culture forms were the charms of the other world. Both men and women played games and sports, danced together and devoted in their spare time in music and community services. The society was a society of war invasion; every house was a centre of learning martial arts and cultural activities. On the other hand, the society was always freed from foreign subjugation, because even at the time of political subjugation the society remained independent. All men were directly or indirectly a warrior of the country. To die in the battlefield, was considered martyrdom, followed by the highest gallantry award in life. To go even in the battle field was considered removal of serious sins. Behind them stood the women folk as the social guardian in the absence of men folk due to emergency or war.
Marriage System: There was no practice of child marriage. Women gained a social status. There was a simple form of divorce after marriage. Re-marriage of divorcee and widows in a different form of Loukhatpa was allowed only after elopment by mutual consent. There was another form, called Keina Katpa performed within hours just after elopment or just before the elopment. There was a total absence of casteism on social basis.10 The adoption of Hinduism as the State religion by a royal edict (1705 A.D.), gave a severe blow upon the social and political life of the Meetei people for a considerable many years till the present time. It separated them from the wild but simple hill tribes inhabiting the hills around the valley located in the heart of Manipur. However, by the continual existence of the belief of Sanamahi-Pakhangba, the society remained keeping saved from the ruins of ancient practices and superstitions.11 The advent of Christianity very fast in the hills marginalised the ancient system of marriage to a large extent.
Oxygamy was in practice. Two great esamples are, the queens of King Nongda Lairen Pakhangba of 33 A.D and King Naothingkhong of seventh century A.D., were all of outside origin; the latter's queen called Chingurembi was a Hindu Princess of outside origin, who also had brought ten attendants belonging to Hindu community. All of them settled in Manipur and their descendants became Meeteis.12 The Meeteis asserted their pride and racial superiority even to their own wives. Such characteristics were the common familiarity of all the primitive tribes.13
Re-marriage of women was a common practice. A woman could marry as many times as she pleased or circumstances compelled.14 At the time of primitive society raiders occasionally attacked and killed the males, women were then carried away as wives, maids or concubines. Women population was nearly a commodity. Very often women reared up children of several husbands. However, the morals of the women were protected by some sort of means as morality changes with time and space. The social condition of Meetei progenitors were extremely primitive.15
Alternative English Records: Three varieties of sacrifice were extant around first century A.D. They were, the Charat (human sacrifice), the Karat (animal sacrifice) and the Marat (cattle sacrifice). The practice stopped at the advent of Poireiton in the first century A.D.26 The then Political Agent Sir James Johnstone commented on slavery as follows:
"Slavery of a mild form existed in Manipur, the slaves being hereditary ones, or people, and the descendants of people who had sold themselves for debt, their services being placed as interest for the debt. Very commonly a Naga marries a girl of another Naga village, thereby incurring a debt of forty rupees to the father, debt being the price of a Naga bride. The man not being able to pay, his father-in-law says, "Sell you, and pay me". This is done and the man pays the forty rupees and has towrk for his master till he can pay the debt, something being sometime allowed for subsistence, or they agree upon a monthly payment, which if not paid is added to the principal. The wife probably works and supports his family, and, if the creditor is a fairly good fellow, things go smoothly, and the debtor never attempts to fulfil his obligations more than he can help. The law allows man to transfer his services to anyone who will take up the debt. Great abuses arose because the master took advantage of the corrupt courts to bind the slaves more and more securely in the chains of debts, afnd then every effort was made to escape. Someitmes cases of very cruel ill-treatment happened, quite contrary to the laws. A female child of only 4 years old was stolen from the custody of the widow mother by the creditor for a debt of nine rupees owed to her deceased father. Such instance of slavery was totally abolished at the instance of the Britain Political Agents in Manipur."17
Clans and Classes: There were seven yeks, nine salai (s), and four pana (s), Phungganai (s), Potshangba (s), Ayokpa (s) and Kei (s). Those were the results of two composite cultures, one from the east and another from the west. All the immigrants were allowed to join in a particular yumnak (surname) and after joning became a Meetei. The Salai could claim their rights guaranteed by religion. Phungganai, Ayokpa and Kei were all belonged to the security group of temporary status for the King. In Phunganai the eldest son of the same parents became Loinaba (close associate) of the King; the second became Lalup (free-laborer) and the third one Nai (slave) of the King. They were given as dowry or gifts token while distributing prizes. Potshangba did the work of watching the belongings including Royal Firms of different varieties. Ayokpa came from the hill people. They were allowed to cultivate one pari (2.5 acres) of paddy field per head. Kei was the servantship of the King.
Social Relationship: Though classless and casteless society they possessed, were more or less influenced by the out-siders. They used certain types of language, calling some of them as Imphal Macha, Lawai Macha, Hao Macha, Loi Macha, Yaithibi Macha or Bamon Macha. All the names carried both positive and negative meanings of the term. The positive side of Imphal Macha was the man who was a resident of Imphal City and qualified as a gentleman, whereas its negative side indicated the rude attitude of the man towards his fellowmen. The positive of Lawai Macha was one who was a sincere and honest villager, whereas its negative carried the meaing of most uncivilized person in the society. The positive of Hao Macha was one who was a very faithful hillman, whereas its negative was one possessed by an odd character. The positive of Loimacha was the man who was adorned with pure qualities of citizenship, whereas its negative side carried the socially boycotted people. The positive of Yaithibi Macha was the person who represented as bad omen to the foreign invaders, whereas its negative disclosed the outcasts (tanthoklaba) in the society. The positive of Bamon Macha was the priestly class who looked after the Radha-Krishna temple, whereas its negative showed us the cook in the services of the society. There was no personal classification amongst them except the Bamon Macha. Any Yaithibi, Loi, Hao or Lawai Yaithibi, Loi, Hao or Lawai may become the socially high Imphal Macha (city dweller), if he or she resides in Imphal city.18
The Loi Community: Historically the Lois settled in the horizontal areas of Manipur valley, the Yaithibis settled in Haochongban, Shamupal and Thoubal Khunou villages. Most of them had different curb dialects of their own tongue in Meetei language, which was otherwise their mother tongue, but quite similar to Burmese language.19 Phayeng, Leimaram, Sugnu, Andro, Thangga, Selloi, Khurkhul, Yaithibi, Kakching, Moirang, Sekmai (Awang and Nongpok), Chakpa, and Kwatha were important Loi villages. However, in the real sense they did not carry the negative concept of Loi by person now-a-days, since the negative mandate was issued by the time when there was monarchy in the country. The people of Moirang and Kakching were not treated as Loi people but the place they lived in. Unlike Andro and Awang Sekami peoples they were not Loi people on the ground that only the pure blood of Meetei race originally settled in these villages. Only the historical Kings made them joined by immigrants coming from Burma, China and the West.20 Besides them the kings sent the offenders to them as a sort of penalty in exile, who were consequently turned out a sizeable number before the end of monarchical rule in Manipur that lasted after centuries. There were such other informal forms of people different from mainland Meeteis, called Heirok, Khangabok, Ningthoukhong or Bishnupriya or Lepnai, whose origin were considered from the west (India). They were assigned Meetei surnames and recently have accustomed the Meetei way of social life.21 They also had a different dialect of Meetei language.
Primitive Institutions: The primitive institutions sarted from their family (Mayum Phungga) with special reference to human person's relationship with the family norms because 'Phungga' was the origin of all families in Meetei society.22 By instituting a Phungga (hearth but a shrine) the norms of family law started distinctly. Around the Phungga, there were the rooms for unmarried daughters and sons separately from the rooms of the parents, and kitchen and so on. The family having a phungga was regarded associated with the ancient laws of their forefathers, whereas the family having no phungga was regarded as a family without such a law.
The Sagei Piba (head of the clan) occupied a unique position in the institution of Phungga. He was the head of a number of phunggas belonging to the same surname. Again, the King was the head of all the Pibas who were in hundreds. They used to keep such Puyas called Yumdaba and Yumkhai, and by the interpretation of these Puyas any injustice in Pibaship was ruled out. The Pibas were the religious head within the jurisdiction of their clan. Subsequently, the Meetei family law developed with such organs of Luhongba (valid marriage), Loukhatpa (recognition of or voidable marriage), Khainaba (divorce), Hanjinnaba (restitution of conjugal life), Aoonpot (dowry), Ayokpa (adoption), Angang Chakthak (maintenance), Tongan Chaba (Partition), Lanthum (property), Nupi Maral (women's property), Aoon lou (dowry paddy-field), and Khubham Shilhouba or Sharuk Thungba or Tamba (inheritance).
----------------------------------------------
REFERENCES:
1. Mutuwa, Tombi: Imphal, Vol. I (Cultural History of Kangleipak, 2-3) (1975).
2. Roy, J., History of Manipur, 24 and 174-75 (1958).
3. Mukna Kangzei is a combination of free-hand wrestling and free-style hockey, all are Meetei origin, an indegenous game. It was very popular till very recently.
4. Roy, J.: History of Manipur, 59 (1958).
5. Hastings, James: Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. VIII, 402 (1964).
6. Roy, J: History of Manipur, 106 (1958).
7. Ibid., 177.
8. Ibid., 178-179.
9. Moirangthem, Kirti: Manipuri Samaj Hougatlakpa Amasung Chaokhatlakpa, 84 (1977).
10. Hastings, James: Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. VIII, 402 (1964).
11. Ibid., 402.
12. Wahengbam, Ibohal: Who was Nongda Lairen Pakhangba (MS), 21.
13. Ibid., p. 22.
14. Ibid.
15. Rajkumar, Jhalajit: History of Manipur, 49-50 (1965).
16. Kh. Yaima: "Poireitoin Khunthokpa", 1 (1971).
17. Johnstone, James: My three Years Experience in Manipur and Naga Hills, 117-119 (1971).
"Sir James Johnstone was a Political Agent in Manipur during the reign of King Chandrakirti (from 1850 to 1886 A.D.)".
18. Roy, J.: History of Manipur, 34 (1958). "Unlike the Hindu outcaste 'Lois' of Manipur do not carry the outcaste characteristics because there are instances of it. In the year 1250 A.D. some Chinese prisoners were allowed to settle at a place called SusaKameng. Their descendants are still living as Loi community, in the Kameng village of Manipur. Chinese were treated in a sense as Loi or outcaste".
19. Moirangthem, Kirti: Manipuri Samaj Hougatlakpa Amasung Chaokhatlakpa, 25 (1977).
20. Ibid., pp. 25-26.
21. Ibid., pp. 28-35.
22. Yumlembam, Thoibee: Yumballongee Hourakpham (Origin of Family Law): The Kangleikhol, No. 41, pp. 13-16 (December 1982).
Some Social Norms: In the beginning of the eighteenth century the killing of a Brahmin was a gravest offence, it was capital punishment. Even the King had to abdicate the throne to absolve himself from the sin of killing a Brahmin.4 However, the society did not allow the supremacy of the Brahmin.5 Customarily all the subjects had to pay respects to their King by bowing down before him. Muslims were exempted from it and allowed to do only "Salam".6 The worship of Sanamahi deity by a prince was regarded as a sure preliminary to an attempt by the worshipper on the throne, and was reserved for the King alone.7 Even after the acceptance of Vaishnanism; Panthoibi, Sanamahi, Umanglai along with some other deities occupied due proposition. Another deity called Pakhangba also was considered to be the sacred soul of ruling chief of Manipur. In the National Flag of Manipur there was a picture symbolizing Pakhangba. These deities were side by side worshipped by the Meetei Hindus.8
The society or the state was neither a contract nor an organism.9 The King was believed to have been appointed by God as King and sent by God for reinging the country. The King was God to his people. Sometimes the King was elected on the basis of democracy. There were organizations, rules and obligations, law for pleasing the King and for bringing up the Meetei culture. To preserve the long standing custom and tradition is the rule of law of Meetei Society.
Social Formation: The society developed from a stage of tribal status. The legal system between the period of the primitive and the age of the enforcement of the Indian Constitutional law was solely based on rites, moral precepts, usages, customs, memory and King’s command.
The society was dynamic because it was sufficient for livelihood. Agriculture depended solely on monsoon rain and without rural organisation there was no sufficiency that was the limbs of Meetei Civilization. Rice produce was amazing. There was no famine if there were no war. Articles were sold at cheap prices. In the markets there were two systems of exchange, one by articles and another by coins. The power of nobles and the feudal system were a living practice till recently. The laborer and their wages were at the wills of the King and the nobles. The cottage industry was remarkably developed in primitive style. In the result the primitive handloom and handicraft products carried an extraordinary charm. In the forests, precious timbers were available in plenty. The lakes supplied all the demands of fish consumption to the country.
Foreign Relations: There was foreign relationship from early times. Some local products were a good choice of the Brishers and of the Myanmarese (Burmese) as well. Communication and external affairs were the business of the King. Most areas of the country were remote hills and rural boundaries without a habitation. The King and the deities were being kept or stayed in the buildings, whereas the common people lived only in the thatching and kuccha houses. Gold, silver and precious stones were meant for the King and his descendants for foreign exchange. Sanitary was at its zenith except in the hilly and Loi regions.
Administration: Various laws were dictated from time to time. The King and his royal family on the one hand, and the poor commoner and the few middleclass families on the other, formed the early administration. The Piba (kinship), Pana (local administration), Lalup (compulsory free military service), Meenai (servant), Naithang (slavery) and the state services, among many others were the sources of law. Without the consent or command of the King, operation of the Executive, Legislative and Juidiciary remained with limitations. If the customary laws were violated, the law breaker was made outcaste, killed or exiled. There was no such right of the present time. Slavery and human sacrifice were in vogue. Many organizations were extant for gracing the King. The obligations of Laiharaoba (appeasing the god) rites were considered as higher than the prevailing laws of the country. The waging of war against the ruling King was common.
Status of Women: Married women controlled the local markets where only edible local products were sold. Markets weare meant for womenfolk. However there were morning market, day market, evening market and night market, which were run by married women only. In paddy fields and in all walks of life, except war, women played greater roles than the men-folk.
The hill women were not in the same footing socially and politically. There were various departments to look after the Pangals (Muslims), Lois (outcastes) and Cheengmees (hill-men). There was a peculiar type of secularism, and it helped while maintaining the peace to a great extent. Prohibition of liquor, suppression of immoral traffic acts, prevention of gambling and eradiction of theft were the negative functions of the state, because it remained in hands of the society mainly women. However, royal verdicts were enforced to check and punish the offenders.
Art and Culture: The Meetei art and culture forms were the charms of the other world. Both men and women played games and sports, danced together and devoted in their spare time in music and community services. The society was a society of war invasion; every house was a centre of learning martial arts and cultural activities. On the other hand, the society was always freed from foreign subjugation, because even at the time of political subjugation the society remained independent. All men were directly or indirectly a warrior of the country. To die in the battlefield, was considered martyrdom, followed by the highest gallantry award in life. To go even in the battle field was considered removal of serious sins. Behind them stood the women folk as the social guardian in the absence of men folk due to emergency or war.
Marriage System: There was no practice of child marriage. Women gained a social status. There was a simple form of divorce after marriage. Re-marriage of divorcee and widows in a different form of Loukhatpa was allowed only after elopment by mutual consent. There was another form, called Keina Katpa performed within hours just after elopment or just before the elopment. There was a total absence of casteism on social basis.10 The adoption of Hinduism as the State religion by a royal edict (1705 A.D.), gave a severe blow upon the social and political life of the Meetei people for a considerable many years till the present time. It separated them from the wild but simple hill tribes inhabiting the hills around the valley located in the heart of Manipur. However, by the continual existence of the belief of Sanamahi-Pakhangba, the society remained keeping saved from the ruins of ancient practices and superstitions.11 The advent of Christianity very fast in the hills marginalised the ancient system of marriage to a large extent.
Oxygamy was in practice. Two great esamples are, the queens of King Nongda Lairen Pakhangba of 33 A.D and King Naothingkhong of seventh century A.D., were all of outside origin; the latter's queen called Chingurembi was a Hindu Princess of outside origin, who also had brought ten attendants belonging to Hindu community. All of them settled in Manipur and their descendants became Meeteis.12 The Meeteis asserted their pride and racial superiority even to their own wives. Such characteristics were the common familiarity of all the primitive tribes.13
Re-marriage of women was a common practice. A woman could marry as many times as she pleased or circumstances compelled.14 At the time of primitive society raiders occasionally attacked and killed the males, women were then carried away as wives, maids or concubines. Women population was nearly a commodity. Very often women reared up children of several husbands. However, the morals of the women were protected by some sort of means as morality changes with time and space. The social condition of Meetei progenitors were extremely primitive.15
Alternative English Records: Three varieties of sacrifice were extant around first century A.D. They were, the Charat (human sacrifice), the Karat (animal sacrifice) and the Marat (cattle sacrifice). The practice stopped at the advent of Poireiton in the first century A.D.26 The then Political Agent Sir James Johnstone commented on slavery as follows:
"Slavery of a mild form existed in Manipur, the slaves being hereditary ones, or people, and the descendants of people who had sold themselves for debt, their services being placed as interest for the debt. Very commonly a Naga marries a girl of another Naga village, thereby incurring a debt of forty rupees to the father, debt being the price of a Naga bride. The man not being able to pay, his father-in-law says, "Sell you, and pay me". This is done and the man pays the forty rupees and has towrk for his master till he can pay the debt, something being sometime allowed for subsistence, or they agree upon a monthly payment, which if not paid is added to the principal. The wife probably works and supports his family, and, if the creditor is a fairly good fellow, things go smoothly, and the debtor never attempts to fulfil his obligations more than he can help. The law allows man to transfer his services to anyone who will take up the debt. Great abuses arose because the master took advantage of the corrupt courts to bind the slaves more and more securely in the chains of debts, afnd then every effort was made to escape. Someitmes cases of very cruel ill-treatment happened, quite contrary to the laws. A female child of only 4 years old was stolen from the custody of the widow mother by the creditor for a debt of nine rupees owed to her deceased father. Such instance of slavery was totally abolished at the instance of the Britain Political Agents in Manipur."17
Clans and Classes: There were seven yeks, nine salai (s), and four pana (s), Phungganai (s), Potshangba (s), Ayokpa (s) and Kei (s). Those were the results of two composite cultures, one from the east and another from the west. All the immigrants were allowed to join in a particular yumnak (surname) and after joning became a Meetei. The Salai could claim their rights guaranteed by religion. Phungganai, Ayokpa and Kei were all belonged to the security group of temporary status for the King. In Phunganai the eldest son of the same parents became Loinaba (close associate) of the King; the second became Lalup (free-laborer) and the third one Nai (slave) of the King. They were given as dowry or gifts token while distributing prizes. Potshangba did the work of watching the belongings including Royal Firms of different varieties. Ayokpa came from the hill people. They were allowed to cultivate one pari (2.5 acres) of paddy field per head. Kei was the servantship of the King.
Social Relationship: Though classless and casteless society they possessed, were more or less influenced by the out-siders. They used certain types of language, calling some of them as Imphal Macha, Lawai Macha, Hao Macha, Loi Macha, Yaithibi Macha or Bamon Macha. All the names carried both positive and negative meanings of the term. The positive side of Imphal Macha was the man who was a resident of Imphal City and qualified as a gentleman, whereas its negative side indicated the rude attitude of the man towards his fellowmen. The positive of Lawai Macha was one who was a sincere and honest villager, whereas its negative carried the meaing of most uncivilized person in the society. The positive of Hao Macha was one who was a very faithful hillman, whereas its negative was one possessed by an odd character. The positive of Loimacha was the man who was adorned with pure qualities of citizenship, whereas its negative side carried the socially boycotted people. The positive of Yaithibi Macha was the person who represented as bad omen to the foreign invaders, whereas its negative disclosed the outcasts (tanthoklaba) in the society. The positive of Bamon Macha was the priestly class who looked after the Radha-Krishna temple, whereas its negative showed us the cook in the services of the society. There was no personal classification amongst them except the Bamon Macha. Any Yaithibi, Loi, Hao or Lawai Yaithibi, Loi, Hao or Lawai may become the socially high Imphal Macha (city dweller), if he or she resides in Imphal city.18
The Loi Community: Historically the Lois settled in the horizontal areas of Manipur valley, the Yaithibis settled in Haochongban, Shamupal and Thoubal Khunou villages. Most of them had different curb dialects of their own tongue in Meetei language, which was otherwise their mother tongue, but quite similar to Burmese language.19 Phayeng, Leimaram, Sugnu, Andro, Thangga, Selloi, Khurkhul, Yaithibi, Kakching, Moirang, Sekmai (Awang and Nongpok), Chakpa, and Kwatha were important Loi villages. However, in the real sense they did not carry the negative concept of Loi by person now-a-days, since the negative mandate was issued by the time when there was monarchy in the country. The people of Moirang and Kakching were not treated as Loi people but the place they lived in. Unlike Andro and Awang Sekami peoples they were not Loi people on the ground that only the pure blood of Meetei race originally settled in these villages. Only the historical Kings made them joined by immigrants coming from Burma, China and the West.20 Besides them the kings sent the offenders to them as a sort of penalty in exile, who were consequently turned out a sizeable number before the end of monarchical rule in Manipur that lasted after centuries. There were such other informal forms of people different from mainland Meeteis, called Heirok, Khangabok, Ningthoukhong or Bishnupriya or Lepnai, whose origin were considered from the west (India). They were assigned Meetei surnames and recently have accustomed the Meetei way of social life.21 They also had a different dialect of Meetei language.
Primitive Institutions: The primitive institutions sarted from their family (Mayum Phungga) with special reference to human person's relationship with the family norms because 'Phungga' was the origin of all families in Meetei society.22 By instituting a Phungga (hearth but a shrine) the norms of family law started distinctly. Around the Phungga, there were the rooms for unmarried daughters and sons separately from the rooms of the parents, and kitchen and so on. The family having a phungga was regarded associated with the ancient laws of their forefathers, whereas the family having no phungga was regarded as a family without such a law.
The Sagei Piba (head of the clan) occupied a unique position in the institution of Phungga. He was the head of a number of phunggas belonging to the same surname. Again, the King was the head of all the Pibas who were in hundreds. They used to keep such Puyas called Yumdaba and Yumkhai, and by the interpretation of these Puyas any injustice in Pibaship was ruled out. The Pibas were the religious head within the jurisdiction of their clan. Subsequently, the Meetei family law developed with such organs of Luhongba (valid marriage), Loukhatpa (recognition of or voidable marriage), Khainaba (divorce), Hanjinnaba (restitution of conjugal life), Aoonpot (dowry), Ayokpa (adoption), Angang Chakthak (maintenance), Tongan Chaba (Partition), Lanthum (property), Nupi Maral (women's property), Aoon lou (dowry paddy-field), and Khubham Shilhouba or Sharuk Thungba or Tamba (inheritance).
----------------------------------------------
REFERENCES:
1. Mutuwa, Tombi: Imphal, Vol. I (Cultural History of Kangleipak, 2-3) (1975).
2. Roy, J., History of Manipur, 24 and 174-75 (1958).
3. Mukna Kangzei is a combination of free-hand wrestling and free-style hockey, all are Meetei origin, an indegenous game. It was very popular till very recently.
4. Roy, J.: History of Manipur, 59 (1958).
5. Hastings, James: Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. VIII, 402 (1964).
6. Roy, J: History of Manipur, 106 (1958).
7. Ibid., 177.
8. Ibid., 178-179.
9. Moirangthem, Kirti: Manipuri Samaj Hougatlakpa Amasung Chaokhatlakpa, 84 (1977).
10. Hastings, James: Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. VIII, 402 (1964).
11. Ibid., 402.
12. Wahengbam, Ibohal: Who was Nongda Lairen Pakhangba (MS), 21.
13. Ibid., p. 22.
14. Ibid.
15. Rajkumar, Jhalajit: History of Manipur, 49-50 (1965).
16. Kh. Yaima: "Poireitoin Khunthokpa", 1 (1971).
17. Johnstone, James: My three Years Experience in Manipur and Naga Hills, 117-119 (1971).
"Sir James Johnstone was a Political Agent in Manipur during the reign of King Chandrakirti (from 1850 to 1886 A.D.)".
18. Roy, J.: History of Manipur, 34 (1958). "Unlike the Hindu outcaste 'Lois' of Manipur do not carry the outcaste characteristics because there are instances of it. In the year 1250 A.D. some Chinese prisoners were allowed to settle at a place called SusaKameng. Their descendants are still living as Loi community, in the Kameng village of Manipur. Chinese were treated in a sense as Loi or outcaste".
19. Moirangthem, Kirti: Manipuri Samaj Hougatlakpa Amasung Chaokhatlakpa, 25 (1977).
20. Ibid., pp. 25-26.
21. Ibid., pp. 28-35.
22. Yumlembam, Thoibee: Yumballongee Hourakpham (Origin of Family Law): The Kangleikhol, No. 41, pp. 13-16 (December 1982).
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